Why some species thrive after catastrophe

23 August 2021

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Why some species thrive after catastrophe – rules for making the most of an apocalypse

By Nicholas R. Longrich

Some species can do well in the face of extreme hardship.

Sixty-six million years ago, an asteroid struck the Earth. The world was plunged into darkness, killing the dinosaurs and over 90% of all species alive. Today, every living thing descends from the handful of surviving species. But not all survivors thrived.

Some groups – birds and placental mammals, butterflies and ants, sunflowers, grasses – diversified, taking advantage of the devastation. Some, like crocodiles and turtles, didn’t. And still others, like multituberculate mammals and champsosaurus, survived the asteroid but went extinct in the aftermath.

Why the difference? Surprisingly, what separated winners and losers wasn’t how hard extinction hit them. Rather, winners had qualities that made them adaptable and competitive after the extinction: they were fast-growing, mobile, cooperative and clever.

Sharks are great survivors, but weren’t great innovators. Wikipedia

Some groups were completely eliminated: dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs and ammonites. Obviously, they couldn’t take part in a recovery. But among survivors, the groups that won out tended to be those hit hard by extinction.

Crocodilians, turtles and sharks were spared the brunt of the extinction, but aren’t especially diverse now. Meanwhile, groups that dominate today were devastated. Snakes and lizards saw over 80% extinction. Mammals were hit harder, suffering 90% extinction. Perhaps three bird species survived, suggesting extinction rates of 99.9% or more.

These groups were winners only in a relative sense – 99.9% extinction is terrible, but beats 100% extinction among tyrannosaurs. But while these animals initially suffered, they thrived when the dust literally settled. Four things gave them an edge.

Metabolism

First, winners had high metabolisms. Metabolic rate is how fast biological processes happen – meaning chemical reactions letting organisms grow, move, digest and reproduce.

Fast-growing sunflowers complete their lives in a summer. Wikipedia

Higher metabolism requires more food. This was initially a liability for warm-blooded birds and mammals during the impact winter, when plants couldn’t photosynthesize food. But afterwards, being able to eat, grow and breed fast let birds and mammals rapidly increase their numbers, compete effectively, and colonize new habitats. Fast-growing flowering plants, especially grasses, flourished at the expense of slower-growing species.

Even within these groups, we see high metabolism providing an edge. Among mammals, placental mammals, with their higher metabolisms, outcompeted marsupials. Passerines, the most diverse group of birds, also have higher metabolic rates than other birds.

Mobility

Second, mobility promotes adaptability. Flight let birds, bats, butterflies and ants colonize new habitats, then diversify. Mammals, being highly mobile, quickly invade new habitats – think rabbits in Australia, or deer in New Zealand – in a way that turtles don’t.

Flowering plants also evolved tricks – fruits, parachutes, burs, floating husks – to let wind, water or animals carry their seeds.

Graylag geese in flight. Wikipedia

Flowering plants also evolved tricks – fruits, parachutes, burs, floating husks – to let wind, water or animals carry their seeds. It’s harder to displace competitors once they’re established, so being first into a new habitat provides a massive competitive advantage.

Supporting Pollinators, Yourself, and Your Ecological Community with Anise Hyssop
By Gayil Nalls

Cooperation

Third, winners tend to cooperate. Lions and wolves form prides and packs to take down prey and defend territory, elephants and zebras use herds for defense. Birds flock to find food and evade predators.

Ants and mound-building termites assemble vast family groups, outcompeting solitary insects. Birds, mammals and social insects also cooperate with relatives by feeding and caring for offspring, preserving their genes more efficiently.

Meanwhile, some species cooperate with other species. Leafcutter ants and termites form alliances with fungi, cultivating them in return for food. Flowering plants give away nectar and fruit to animals, which then pollinate flowers and spread their seeds. By cooperating, these species compete more effectively, so cooperative animals like ants, elephants and orcas tend to play bigger roles in the ecosystem than solitary ones like alligators and turtles.

Intelligence

But maybe the most remarkable trend is the rise of intelligence. Mammals and birds have the largest brains of any animals. The largest-brained mammals, the placentals, have outcompeted marsupials and egg-laying monotremes. The most diverse birds, the passerines and parrots, are the brainiest.

Among insects, the social insects – ants, bees, termites – have complex behaviors that emerge from interactions of unintelligent individuals. This phenomenon is known as swarm intelligence, and not coincidentally, these insects dominated ecosystems after the asteroid winter.

But intelligence doesn’t just make animals more competitive. It accelerates adaptation, because the first step in changing your DNA is changing your mind.

For example, before mammals could evolve into whales, they first had to learn to swim and fish, only afterwards could natural selection create flippers and sonar. Before horses could evolve, their omnivorous ancestors switched to a vegan diet, then, natural selection favored tall-crowned teeth and complex guts to break down tough plants. Behavior leads; genes follow.

Humpback whale. wikipedia

The greater an animal’s behavioral flexibility, the more tricks it can learn, and so the greater its adaptive potential. Animals don’t consciously decide their evolutionary futures. But they do choose what to eat, how to forage or where to live.

Being able to learn from yesterday, process information in dreams tonight, imagine different outcomes tomorrow – learning, memory processing, creativity – increase the number of potential evolutionary futures.

Whale ancestors didn’t dream of becoming dolphins, but they did dream of catching fish, and they imagined new fishing grounds. Being able to learn from yesterday, process information in dreams tonight, imagine different outcomes tomorrow – learning, memory processing, creativity – increase the number of potential evolutionary futures.

No accident

The continents were isolated in the early Cenozoic era just after the asteroid hit. Yet remarkably similar ecosystems dominated by mammals and birds evolved independently in South America, Africa, Australia and the Eurasian-North American supercontinent. That implies these groups’ dominance wasn’t an accident.

What’s striking is that these trends weren’t new – dinosaurs show similar patterns. Dinosaurs of the Cretaceous period had higher growth rates than their ancient Triassic ancestors. They were more mobile, some were fast runners, others – birds – flew.

The brains of these later dinosaurs were larger than earlier counterparts. T. rex was faster, smarter and had a faster metabolism than its forebears. Many – ceratopsians, duckbills, avimimids – show herding behaviors unknown from earlier dinosaurs.

Evolution may offer us some lessons here. Be quick. Move to find new opportunities. Work with others. Try new things. But above all, change – adapt.

During the asteroid winter, the rules briefly changed. Warm-blooded, fast-moving, cooperative, intelligent birds, mammals and dinosaurs fared poorly against turtles and alligators. Dinosaurs vanished. Afterwards, these trends reasserted themselves.

Evolution may offer us some lessons here. Be quick. Move to find new opportunities. Work with others. Try new things. But above all, change – adapt.

These are almost always good strategies, but especially when you’re down, trying for a comeback.

Nicholas R. Longrich is a Senior Lecturer in Evolutionary Biology and Paleontology, University of Bath

This article was first published in The Conversation.

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Isle of Man

21 August 2021

Angel Diaz

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Isle of Man

Heather

Calluna

General Description / Cultural Significance

Isle of Man has been inhabited by humans since the Mesolithic Period. Although there are few trees and somewhat limited biodiversity, there are abundant flowers and the country is covered in heather. The Isle of Man reports that heather covers 11 percent of the land, and 71 percent of that is in public ownership. Calluna vulgaris is a native perennial evergreen beloved by the people and by the local bees. Special honey from Isle of Man is therefore scented with heather. Heather grows on peat bogs and when the peat is burned for heat, its distinctive scent can be recognized as it fills the air. In late summer and fall, heather is violet-colored, and its scent is noticeable throughout the island. The blooming heather ablaze on the coastline of Isle of Man is an iconic image. Another well-known species of heather is the cross-leaved heath or rose heather, Erica tetralix, which also grows in the boggy areas of the country. An infusion of heather blossoms has been made for centuries. Calluna vulgaris is rich in bioactive compounds including phenolic acids. The plant has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative properties.

Climate Change/Conservation Status

Isle of Man acknowledges that the effects of climate change are already happening to the environment and to the economy. The island is already experiencing sea level rise and an increase in temperatures, as well as an increased frequency of severe storms and storm surges.

The Isle of Man government wishes to maximize the natural capacities of their hill land and peat bogs as a way to reduce the impact of climate change, as they store carbon dioxide. As the Manx say, the uplands are “an iconic part of our landscape and heritage.” The hill lands collect and filter their drinking water, help retain water from rainfall, slow its passage into rivers and streams, and reduce downstream flood risk. Thus, they are emphasizing sustainable management of this area in particular to ensure that it retains its functions well into the future to the benefit of the island’s inhabitants. An area once appreciated by the country for its beauty is now identified as an area most important to their sustainability. Because heather grows on peat bogs, sustainable management of those areas also impacts the plant.

The government of Isle of Man is committed to achieving net zero emissions by 2050.

Alternate Names
Ling

Sources
Douglas Public Library, Isle of Man; The Perfumery of Saint Johns, Isle of Man.

Dróżdż, P., & Sentkowska, A., 2016. Heather flowers as a source of phenolic acids – Evaluation of solvent effect and antioxidant capacity. Research Gate. [website]

Hutchins, A., 2006. The Isle of Man Climate Change Scoping Study. Climate Risk Management.

John Bowring, Douglas Public Library, Isle of Man; Pete Matthews of The Perfumery at Saint Johns, Isle of Man. This statement can be found on the World Sensorium original website.

Manx Radio, 2006. Manx Heather. Manx Telecom. [website]

The Official Isle of Man Government Website, 2013. Manx Upland Steering Group. Crown Copyright. [website]

Vogl, S., et al., 2013. Ethnopharmacological in vitro studies on Austria’s folk medicine — An unexplored lore in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of 71 Austrian traditional herbal drugs. J Ethnopharmacol, [website] (149)3. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.06.007

← Ireland

↑

Israel →

Iceland

16 August 2021

Angel Diaz

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Iceland

Creeping Thyme “Blodberg”

Thymus praecox

General Description / Cultural Significance

Blodberg is the English translation for “creeping thyme” or Thymus praecox. The creeping evergreen perennial grows wild and low to the ground all over the island and its leaves contain essential oils and emit a beloved aromatic scent, strong and savory. Its purplish flowers appear in the summer and attract bees and butterflies. For as long as the island has been populated, creeping thyme has been used in various ways as food, medicine, and tonic. It flavors cooked fish and is eaten in salads. Icelanders gather and use it to create a special tea, consumed locally and dried and packaged for sale. Creeping thyme has antioxidant properties and kills bacteria, often used for preserving raw fish on ice. Medically, it is aromatic and antiseptic, and is used to treat a variety of respiratory conditions and even hangovers.

Climate Change/Conservation Status

Iceland is experiencing accelerated glacial melting, volcanic activity, and extreme weather all related to climate change. The acidification of Icelandic waters is a huge concern. Warming and climate variability are having tremendous effects on fauna and flora. Iceland’s iconic Atlantic Puffin is in severe decline. The bird is now listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is at high risk for extinction. Although they are hunted as game and seasoned with Blodberg, the primary reason is climate change, which is not only warming and acidifying the waters, but is also changing the natural temperature cycles of the waters and killing the sand eels, the primary food source of the puffins.

The biggest danger in Iceland right now is that massive glaciers are receding quickly. The melting of glaciers causes the rise in land, which means Iceland is also experiencing shifts and uplift in land contours and elevations. This changes infrastructure, such as pipelines, for example, and means Iceland is working to find a solution to this problem. The types of fish that can be caught in the area are now changing too, due to melting. It is crucial that Iceland keep their carbon emissions low in order to help counteract the problem. Glaciers are responsible for keeping volcanic activity in check, and so there are expected to be more eruptions as a result. Rather than panicking, many Icelanders have pushed to instead find new practical solutions for these problems.

Alternate Names
Elfin thyme
Wild thyme

Sources
Alderman, L., 2019. What Worries Iceland? A World Without Ice. It is Preparing. The New York Times Company. [website]

Permanent Mission of Iceland to the United Nations and Scandinavian Tourism. This statement can be found on the World Sensorium original website.

Schwartz, J., 2018. Overfishing, hunting and pollution are putting pressure on the birds, but climate change may prove to be the biggest challenge. The New York Times Company. [website]

← Hungary

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India →

Why Do Flowers Smell?

30 July 2021

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Why Do Flowers Smell?

Animal pollinators can carry pollen from one flower’s stigma to another flower’s ovule as they forage for food

By Richard Harkess

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Imagine walking through a tropical forest as a sweet scent wafts through the air. A little farther down the path, the putrid stench of rotting flesh makes you catch your breath. Upon investigation, you find that both odors originate from flowers – but why do flowers smell like anything at all?

It’s actually part of a strategy that helps flowering plants reproduce themselves and spread their species. Certain scents help these flowers solve a big problem.

Plants flower to produce seeds that can go on to become new plants. To make a viable seed, pollen from one part of the flower must fertilize the ovules using their own pollen to fertilize the ovule. Others require pollen from another plant of the same species – that’s called cross-pollination.

So how does one plant get some other individual plant’s pollen where it needs to be?

Sometimes gravity helps pollen fall into place. Sometimes wind carries it. Wind-pollinated flowers, like those of many trees and grasses, don’t produce a scent.

Flowers that need the help of insects and bats go one step further, producing a floral scent that acts as a smelly kind of welcome sign for just the right pollinator

Other flowers are pollinated by birds, bats, insects or even small rodents carrying the pollen from one flower to another. In these cases, the flowers might provide a little incentive. Animal pollinators are rewarded by sweet energy- and nutrient-rich nectar or protein-packed pollen they can eat.

Flowers that need the help of insects and bats go one step further, producing a floral scent that acts as a smelly kind of welcome sign for just the right pollinator.

An orchid blooming in the tropical forest or a rose in your garden needs to attract a pollinator to bring pollen from flowers of the same species. However, there are flowers which look similar but are from other species. To differentiate itself from other flowers, each species’ flowers puts out a unique scent to attract specific pollinators.

People can smell these floral scents because they easily evaporate from the flower, drifting on the air currents to attract pollinators.

Similar to the perfumes at a department store counter, flower scents are made up from a large and diverse number of chemicals which evaporate easily and float through the air. The type of chemical, its amount and its interaction with other chemicals give the flower its unique scent. The scent of the rose may consist of as many as 400 different chemicals.

People can smell these floral scents because they easily evaporate from the flower, drifting on the air currents to attract pollinators.

The giant corpse flower has a very stinky scent that its pollinators love.

Flower fragrances may be sweet and fruity, or they can be musky, even stinky or putrid depending on the pollinator they are trying to attract. A blooming apple or cherry tree emits a sweet scent to attract bumblebees, honeybees and other bees. But stick your nose into the beautiful flowers of a pear tree – a close relative of apples and cherries – and you may recoil in disgust, as these flowers smell musky or putrid to attract flies as pollinators. Similarly, the corpse flower, native to Indonesian rainforests, emits a foul odor reminiscent of rotting flesh to attract flies and beetles to pollinate its flowers.

Once pollinated, the flower stops producing a floral scent and nectar and redirects its energy to the fertilized embryo that will become the seed.

Moths and bats flying at night locate flowers by the scent some release after the Sun goes down. The night-blooming cereus, the saguaro cactus and the dragon fruit all have large white flowers which open at night – they seem to glow in the moonlight, making them visible to nocturnal visitors. Their strong perfume helps guide pollinators inside. While drinking the sweet nectar, the pollinator picks up pollen which it then deposits in the next flower visited.

Once pollinated, the flower stops producing a floral scent and nectar and redirects its energy to the fertilized embryo that will become the seed.

Richard L. Harkess is Professor of Floriculture and Ornamental Horticulture at Mississippi State University

This article was originally published on The Conversation.

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We Crush, Poison, and Destroy Our Insects at Our Own Peril

30 July 2021

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We Crush, Poison, and Destroy Our Insects at Our Own Peril

Insects are escape artists. Now they face a threat more pernicious than predation.

By John Hainze

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This past summer, my wife and I ventured to an area near Mount Adams in southwestern Washington state to census bumblebees. We camped there over the weekend as we took part in the Pacific Northwest Bumblebee Atlas survey. Scientists want to fill gaps in their knowledge about the bees. Learning about the relative number of different species, and their floral resources over a broad area, provides invaluable information, particularly when some species are in decline. I was helping to determine where conservation efforts may be needed. Survey participants choose a territory where they capture and photograph bumblebees on two occasions. I still marvel at the variety in the photos we took—bees with coloration incorporating rusty bands of hair, black stubby hairs, white patches, orange bands, and a brilliant, lemon-yellow covering of long hairs. Bumblebees are really quite beautiful when observed more closely.

There is some risk involved, of course. Bumblebees have a painful sting and, unlike the honeybee, with its barbed stinger, the sharp, smooth bumblebee stinger can sting multiple times. Insect stings may serve two purposes. The first is to incapacitate prey. The second is to ward off predators. Bumblebees feed solely on pollen and flower nectar. So they would not sting to subdue prey. A bumblebee nest full of honey and nearly immobile larvae, though, is highly attractive to predators. The bumblebee sting is a weapon used for defense—a mechanism to escape predation from animals that may be 50,000 to 100,000 times their size.¹ And judging by the way most people respond, it works pretty well. The sting of the honeybee has been used as a reference point by sting pain connoisseur, Justin Schmidt. He rates the bumblebee and honeybee stings as a pedestrian 2 on his scale of 1-4.² But that’s a sufficient wallop for people to keep their distance from these bees—and that’s the way the bees like it.

The unparalleled success of insects as a group of organisms results from their ability to escape existential threats. They’re escape artists. They’ve evolved multiple means of eluding the larger animals that endanger them—by stinging, biting, flying, jumping, running, startling, hiding in crevices, and using camouflage as well as chemical defenses. Yet these masters at evading far larger animals face a threat more pernicious than predation today. The resulting decline in the number of insects and in the number of insect species is increasingly well documented. Why should this be alarming? Insects play significant roles as food or in the growth of food for many organisms, including human beings. Insects are also recyclers, decomposing plant matter and animal dung and contributing to the organic content of soils.

It’s not all honey and butterflies in our relationship with insects.

It’s been said that if human beings disappeared, we would not be missed. Insects and other organisms would thrive. Yet we and many other animals would not survive were insects to disappear. The plight of the island marble butterfly (Euchloe ausonides insulanis) and the western bumblebee (Bombus occidentalis) exemplify the multiple stressors on insect survival in the Anthropocene, the proposed name for a new epoch in which human-generated change outstrips the effect of natural forces on the Earth. What responsibilities, if any, do we bear toward these insects? And what can each of us do to stem the tide of global insect decline?

In my recent book, Nature Underfoot, I argue that we crush, poison, and destroy insects and their habitat at our own peril. Yet reasons for acting to prevent insect decline run much deeper than self-interest. Humans cause habitat loss, produce pesticides, and import non-native species. We bear, according to certain strands of philosophical and religious thought, responsibility for the catastrophic losses insects experience today. Some say that insects have moral value since they strive to achieve their ends, just as we and other animals do. Others argue that insects have moral value as a part of God’s creation. Scientists point to the value of insects in global ecosystems, or the value implied by tens or hundreds of thousands of years involved in the evolution of an insect species.

The insect apocalypse has captured headlines, but the situation is more nuanced than that. Scientists find an increase in the overall numbers of arthropods in the Arctic, but a decline in diversity. Certain habitats in the Arctic are also affected more than others.³ In Puerto Rico, insect declines initially attributed to climate change may have resulted instead from hurricanes.⁴ Some insect species have even increased in numbers—mainly those that are tolerant of human activities or that benefit from associating with humans or from climate change.

Despite that, the general trend is negative as climate change, habitat destruction (in the form of deforestation, urbanization, and intensification of agriculture), and pesticides take their toll. These forces are overtaking the insects. They are coming so quickly that even these spectacularly successful evolutionary improvisers do not have time to escape. It’s often difficult for scientists to identify a single contributing factor. A new paper, introducing a special issue on the plight of insects, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, referred to the decline of these tiny creatures as “death by a thousand cuts.”⁵

There is a paucity of long-term records for insect populations. The best historical records are for moths and butterflies in Europe and North America. The story of the island marble butterfly, a grassland species, illustrates the myriad forces arrayed against insects. It was declared endangered in the United States in May of 2020. It is charmingly small—mostly white on the tops of the wings and mottled green, yellow, and white on the undersides. Perhaps its colorful camouflage is a way of escaping predation. This little butterfly was thought to be extinct since 1908, when it was last collected on Gabriola Island, British Columbia. Quite by accident 90 years later, while conducting a survey of butterflies in Puget Sound prairie habitats, a Washington state biologist, John Fleckenstein, collected two of these butterflies on San Juan Island. Neither Fleckenstein, nor his colleague, Ann Potter, could identify the butterflies as they reviewed his collection. So, Potter took the butterflies to a butterfly conference in Corvallis, Oregon, where experts were ecstatic to see the butterfly once thought extinct!⁶

The Lazarus-like return of the island marble butterfly is remarkable, but the pressures that endanger it remain. The prairie habitats where the butterfly is found have been farmed, used for pasture, and developed for housing, destroying much of its original habitat. The butterfly caterpillars feed and develop on plants in the mustard family. The native mustard, Menzies’ pepperweed (Lepidium virginicum var. menziesii), that must have originally supported the butterfly, is often found surrounding lagoons on San Juan Island. These plants and the island marble butterfly are damaged by winter storm surges, which will become more serious as climate change causes sea levels to rise. Fortunately, the butterfly has adapted to feeding on two non-native plants, field mustard (Brassica rapa) and tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum) that grow elsewhere on the island.

We and many animals wouldn’t survive if insects disappeared.

Other invasive species have had a more deleterious effect on the island marble butterfly. The brown garden snail (Cornu aspersum), brought from Europe to the west coast as a source of escargot, competes with the island marble butterfly in consuming field mustard and tumble mustard. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) develops large populations in the San Juan Islands and also feeds on butterfly host plants. Deer, though native in the San Juans, are destructive of prairie habitat. Deer numbers are very high there because their predators, such as wolves, cougars, and bears, were eliminated by European settlers. Deer not only destroy island marble butterfly habitat, but they may ingest eggs and caterpillars in the process. Island marble butterflies also suffer from predation by native spiders and by a European paper wasp (Polistes dominula).⁷

A vigorous and widely distributed population of butterflies could withstand the pressure of predation, but it poses a significant risk for the tiny, localized population of island marble butterflies. Death by a thousand cuts. Habitat destruction, loss of food plants, invasive species, climate change, and predation are primarily human-driven problems. Fortunately, what is believed to be the last island marble butterfly population falls within the boundaries of the San Juan National Historic Park. Here, the park service is actively rearing and releasing butterflies and making a significant effort to preserve their habitat. The island marble butterfly is in a fragile state but hopefully its new endangered status will yield another amazing recovery.

Bumblebees experience similar problems, and the citizen-science survey I described endeavored to generate information about wild bumblebee status—where they occur and what they feed on. They can be found from just east of the Rocky Mountains to the west coast and north from Alaska to Saskatchewan. The tip of the western bumblebee abdomen can be whitish or rusty, yellow hairs may be present or absent above that, and all of these bumblebees have yellow hairs at the front of their thorax behind the head. Bumblebees are important pollinators and, for certain plants, such as tomatoes and blueberries, are better pollinators than honeybees. This led to the domestication of bumblebees for pollination in agriculture, particularly in greenhouses.

In 1992, the U.S. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service allowed the importation of western bumblebees raised in Europe into the U.S. In 1997, production facilities in California were devastated by a fungal parasite, Nosemi bombi, possibly originating in Europe. At the same time, high levels of N. bombi were found in wild western bumblebee populations, appearing to be related to their significant decline. The coincidental timing of the disease among domestic and wild populations and limited analysis of the parasites indicated that the domestically reared bees infected the wild populations.⁸ If so, it’s another example of how human manipulation of nature may have unforeseen consequences (though some would say the problem was not unforeseen). The commercial production of western bumblebees became financially impractical in the early 2000s.

To conserve insects, there is much we can do in our own yards.

We had hoped to see the western bumblebee in our sampling, because its numbers have dropped precipitously in our area. The western bumblebee was once widely distributed and one of the more common bumblebees found in western North America. More recently, since 1998, western bumblebees have become more difficult to find, particularly west of the Cascade mountains from California to British Columbia. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is currently studying whether to place the western bumblebee on the endangered species list, with a decision planned by 2023.

The western bumblebee is not alone in its misfortune. A 2017 global study found that one-third of the bumblebee species they assessed were in decline.⁹ This habitat loss is driven by agriculture and urbanization, pesticides, climate change, and competition from non-native species. The presence of the bees across their range, based on the modeling of existing data, has been reduced by 93 percent between 1997 and 2018.¹⁰ Scientists will continue to assess the viability of the species as the Fish and Wildlife Service works to determine whether it requires the protection of the Endangered Species Act. Again, death by a thousand cuts is an apt description of the situation facing the western bumblebee. If the N. bombi doesn’t get you, habitat loss will.

Of course, it’s not all honey and butterflies in our relationship with insects. There are occasions when it’s us or them. Insecticide-treated bed nets and spraying long-lasting insecticides on indoor surfaces are some of the best ways to prevent the spread of malaria, which can be debilitating or fatal for many. Destroying the habitat of Anopheles mosquitoes in the southern U.S. helped eliminate malaria there.

But if we agree that we have a responsibility to act to conserve insects, then what can individuals do to aid and abet their escape from human-caused difficulties? There is much we can do in our own yards by constructing a more diverse habitat using native plant species. It is possible to encourage certain species by planting their food plants. There is a program underway in the U.S. to get property owners to plant milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) to support monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Some residents on San Juan Island are also planting the mustard species that are important to the survival of the island marble butterfly. These contributions will help offset some of the degradation of insect habitat. Limiting pesticide use, including insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides would help. I estimate, based on U.S. Environmental Protection Agency data, that around 70 percent of U.S. households use chemical pesticides of one kind or another. We can also limit the use of outside lighting. It makes it difficult for nocturnal flying insects to orient and may kill those that are attracted to the lights.

It would help insects to have more advocates. Speaking up for the conservation of endangered insects is important. Supporting candidates that promise to follow the science and take action against climate change would be another positive step. And, finally, consider joining a citizen-science initiative that provides needed information on insects, not unlike the bumblebee survey I enjoyed. I promise that you’ll be amply rewarded as you explore another, smaller dimension of the natural world.

John Hainze is an entomologist and ethicist. He is an affiliate at the Seattle University Center for Environmental Justice and Sustainability, and an adjunct faculty member at Seattle University.

This article was first published in Nautilus Magazine in January 2020.

1. Schmidt, J.O. Evolutionary responses of solitary and social hymenoptera to predation by primates and overwhelmingly powerful vertebrate predators. Journal of Human Evolution 71, 12-19 (2014).↩︎

2. Schmidt, J.O. Pain and lethality induced by insect stings: An exploratory and correlational study. Toxins 11, 427 (2019).↩︎

3. Høye, T.T., et al. Nonlinear trends in abundance and diversity and complex responses to climate change in arctic arthropods. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, e2002557117 (2021).↩︎

4. Schowalter, T.D., Pandey, M., Presley, S.J., Willig, M.R., & Zimmerman, J.K. Arthropods are not declining but are responsive to disturbance in the Luquillo experimental forest, Puerto Rico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, e2002556117 (2021).↩︎

5. Wagner, D.L., Grames, E.M., Forister, M.L., Berenbaum, M.R., & Stopak, D. Insect decline in the anthropocene: Death by a thousand cuts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, e2023989118 (2021).↩︎

6. Leinbach Marquis, A. Hiding in plain sight. National Parks 79, 22-23 (2004).↩︎

7. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for the island marble butterfly and designation of critical habitat. The Federal Register 85, 26786-26820 (2020).↩︎

8. Graystock, P., Blane, E.J., McFrederick, Q.S., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W.O.H. Do managed bees drive parasite spread and emergence in wild bees? International Journal of Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 5, 64-75 (2016).↩︎

9. Arbetman, M.P., Gleiser, G., Morales, C.L., Williams, P., & Aizen, M.A. Global decline of bumblebees is phylogenetically structured and inversely related to species range size and pathogen incidence. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 284 (2017).↩︎

10. Graves, T.A., et al. Western bumblebee: Declines in the continental United States and range-wide information gaps. Ecosphere 11, e03141 (2020).↩︎

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Georgia

18 July 2021

Angel Diaz

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Georgia

Grape

Vitis

General Description / Cultural Significance

Georgia is a wine drinking country, and Grapes, Vitis, emit a common scent that pervades the lives of Georgians. Since ancient times, the region has been a Grape culture that highly values the vining, flowering plant, and uses it to make wine. The country is home to 500 varieties of indigenous Grapes. Many vineyards in the country protect endangered vines that are not found elsewhere in the world at all. The National Grape Collection, funded by the government, is located in the country, and in part seeks to rediscover lost varieties of Grape and preserve them. Resurrecting old varieties for commercial export has become more popular. Both red and white varieties of Grapes are grown to produce high quality wine. Grapes are one of the most esteemed fruits in Georgia and a source of many natural phytochemicals that, besides their role in food and drink, treat various diseases. Resveratrol, an anti-inflammatory, is one of its most highly valued biologically active constituents.

Georgia is especially known for its ancient, traditional Kvevri or Qvevri wine, still fermented in clay vessels lined with beeswax. This wine is frequently made from Saparevi Grapes, which are genetically similar to wild Grapes. The use of the plant’s skins and stems help create complexity in the wine’s flavor during the fermentation process. The majority of wines produced in Georgia are white, and many are defined as “off-dry” which means they are not a bone-dry wine. Hundreds of small farmers produce the beverage these days, using both traditional and newer methods. Wines can be sweet, semi-sweet, dry, semi-dry, sparkling, or fortified. They have become popular recently, both in the country and as exports.

Like Georgian Grapes and wine, Georgian honey too has terroir, “a sense of place” with distinctive biophysical traits of the region, whether it is the country’s famous Chestnut honey, its unique alpine flower-based honey, or honey from single-flowers like the plum, cherry, or acacia. You can read more at: https://worldsensorium.com/the-many-secrets-of-georgian-honey/

Climate Change/Conservation Status

In 2012, the World Bank released a study analyzing the potential impact of climate change on the economy and agriculture of Georgia. The report stated that Georgia is particularly vulnerable to climate change as over half of the country is employed in agriculture, which plays a significant role in the country’s GDP. Agriculture is a climate-sensitive sector, so the ways in which the rural population make a living are vulnerable. The Global Wine Index has identified the Kakheti and Racha regions of Georgia as two of the most at-risk regions due to rising temperatures and abhorrent weather patterns, bringing hail and frost. In an area where the history and culture of the country’s many fertile, wine-producing valleys are economically tied to cultivated Grape vines, climate change is already taking its toll on the income of a growing number of households. Wine is deeply embedded in the culture of Georgians who are known world-wide for their ancient, unique grape varieties and excellent climate conditions. However, the distinctive aroma and taste from their traditional productions are changing.

Alternate Names
Khikhvi grape
Mtsvane grape
Ojaleshi grape
Saperavi grape
Tetra grape
Tsolikauri grape
Wild Grape

Sources

Bell, J., 2012. The marriage of wine and religion. My Wine School. [website]

Bortolot, L., 2018. Why Georgian Wines Are Among the Most Unique On The Planet. Forbes. [website]

Georgia Tourism, 2018. Discover the secret birthplace of wine. National Geographic. [website]

Georgian Journal, 2017. How climate change might affect Georgia’s wine regions in 2017. Georgian Journal. [website]

Isabella, T., 2016. Is the Country of Georgia the Next Great Wine Destination? Wall Street Journal. [website]

Jaggi, M., 2014. Resurgence of Georgia’s viticultural heritage excites wine connoisseurs. Financial Times. [website]

National Wine Agency, 2020. Georgian Wine: Report 2020. National Wine Agency. [website]

Permanent Mission of the Republic of Georgia to the United Nations. This statement can be found on the World Sensorium original website.

Robinson, L., 2016. Georgia: Birthplace of Wine. The Travel Magazine. [website]

Theroux, M., 2012. Discovering Wine in Georgia. BBC Travel. [website]

World Bank, 2012. Georgia: Climate Change and Agriculture Country Note. The World Bank Group. [website]

← Gambia

↑

Germany →

Faeroe Islands

10 July 2021

Angel Diaz

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Faeroe Islands

Spotted Orchid

Dactylorhiza maculata

General Description / Cultural Significance

The spotted orchid, Dactylorhiza maculata, is known on the Faeroe Islands for its pleasant smell. This beautiful herbaceous perennial has erect stems and stained leaves, with attractive pale purple petals. They flower during the summer, found growing in damp meadows and near streams, but also on sunny hills or mountainsides. It is pollinated primarily by bumblebees and day moths who are attracted by its heavenly perfume, but the plant does not provide nectar for its pollinators.

Salep is a nutrient dense starch-like substance derived from the root of the plant, and used to treat irritable stomachs, or else added to bread or cereal. Salep can also be important to the diet of either very old or very young people, because of how valuable as a supplement it is. Recently, chef Leif Sørensen invented Faroese haute cuisine from the minimal food indigenous to the islands, not just fermented lamb, mussels and dried fish, but grasses, medical herbs and seaweed too.

Climate Change/Conservation Status

Change in sea temperature around the Faeroe Islands has affected fishing stocks, as a result of marine ecosystem change. Now that ice is melting in certain areas, it also means there are new accessible areas susceptible to exploitation for gas, minerals, and oil. These changes mean that searching for adaptive strategies, as well as monitoring ecosystems are more important than ever.

Climate change in the Faeroe Islands also means plants are on the move. Distribution of plants in the mountains might be seriously affected. Species have been migrating upward, and when snow patches disappear, so do their associated communities. These occurrences lead to the disappearance of certain species that are located on mountains not high enough to allow migration toward higher altitudes. Wild orchids, such as the Spotted Orchid, are important markers of how plants in the larger ecosystem will react as temperatures shift, so eyes will be on this native species.

Alternate Names
Heath spotted orchid
Moorland spotted orchid

← Ethiopia

↑

Falkland Islands →

Estonia

10 July 2021

Angel Diaz

No comments

Estonia

Cornflower

Centaurea cyanus

General Description / Cultural Significance

The cornflower, Centaurea cyanus, has grown on Estonian soil for more than 10,000 years, since the first humans came to Northern Europe. The plant grows in rye fields, meaning in the minds of Estonians, there is a strong connection between the flower and their daily bread. For decades, artists have created decorative representations of the iconic cornflower, portraying its striking graphic appearance. The flower was chosen in 1968 to be the national flower, and it has always been considered a symbol of resistance. The color of the Estonian flag is “cornflower blue,” and when the flag was banned by Soviet authorities, they also banned representations of the cornflower itself. This was evidence of the flower’s power as a pervasive symbol for Estonians.

The flower blooms from late spring to late summer, and is used as part of festive garlands that young girls wear. The blue color attracts butterflies and several other insect species. Because it is high in sugar production, it is significant for the pollination of bees. People use the petals of the cornflower in teas and spices, as well as in foods as blue color pigment. Science has found that the flowers have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and therefore cornflower tea is found to be useful for medicinal purposes to treat fever, yeast infections, and constipation.

Climate Change/Conservation Status

Climate change has caused sea level rise for Estonia, as a main impact, as there are extensive low-lying coastal areas in the country. Air temperatures have increased significantly and are predicted to continue to do so, in conjunction with increased precipitation. The unpredictability of carbon emissions adds to the crisis and means that the country is at risk for extreme weather events.

Therefore, there have been efforts in the country to further understand the effects of climate change and improve infrastructure in case extreme weather events arise. Although Estonia is a relatively small country, a large sector of its nature is still unspoiled and protected. In 2021, the first female Estonian prime minister Kaja Kallas vowed to commit to creating climate change policy. Estonia could potentially act as a leader and catalyst for climate change legislation.

Although not declared endangered by the IUCN, there are reports that the cornflower has dramatically declined in the wild over the past half century. It is thought that habitat loss and increasing use of herbicides and fertilizers are factors in its decline, but increasing temperatures haven’t been ruled out.

Alternate Names
Bachelor’s button
Bluebottle
Blue bonnets
Brooms and brushes
Corn-blinks
Ladder love
Logger-heads
Miller’s delight
Pin cushion
Witch bells
Witch’s thimble

Sources
BioClim, 2015. Adapting to climate change in Estonia: current state, impact assessment and adaptation measures. Estonian University of Life Sciences. [website]

Canale, S., 2017. The Meaning of the Cornflower. Exotic Flowers. [website]

Estonian Institute and the Consulate General of Estonia. This statement can be found on the World Sensorium original website.

Estonian World, 2019. WATCH: Is climate change a threat to Estonia? Estonian World. [website]

Kont, A., Jaagus, J., & Aunap, R., 2003. Climate change scenarios and the effect of sea-level rise for Estonia. Global and Planetary Change, [website] 36(1-2), pp.1-15. DOI: 10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00149-2

Takkis, K., Tscheulin, T., & Petanidou, T., 2018. Differential Effects of Climate Warming on the Nectar Secretion of Early- and Late-Flowering Mediterranean Plants. Frontiers Media. [website] DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00874

← Eritrea

↑

Ethiopia →

Equatorial Guinea

10 July 2021

Angel Diaz

No comments

Equatorial Guinea

Ceiba

Ceiba pentandra

General Description / Cultural Significance

Ceiba, or Ceiba pentandra, is a tall tree that can grow up to 70 meters in height, one of the tallest trees in the world. Seen from a great distance away, its round crown towers above all the other trees. It is identified on the ground by its buttress roots. The tree is also a towering, pervasive, and powerful symbol in the minds of Equatoguineans, and are known to live five hundred or more years. Ceiba is not only the national tree, it is depicted on the national seal and flag of Equatorial Guinea, along with a band of green that symbolizes the country’s abundant plant biodiversity. Additionally, it is the name of their national airlines and main bank. It follows that the tree is protected by the state with a tremendous, essentially unaffordable fine for cutting one down.

In colonial times, King Muganda famously planted a ceiba tree on the largest island of the country—the Bioko Island—and made a deal with Portuguese settlers. He circled the new tree with a chain, and they agreed that once it grew large enough to break it, the Portuguese would leave the country. The ending was not storybook, but eventually the people forced the Portuguese to respect the promise made by their ancestors.

The ceiba is more than a national emblem. The tropical tree is deeply integrated into the culture in diverse ways, but primarily as medicine, fiber, and timber. The tree’s leaves, bark, and gum are used in a variety of ways to treat a myriad of illnesses and conditions, including mental illness, for which a leaf sap beverage is consumed. The ceiba is used to treat fevers, relax spasms, stop bleeding, and treat diabetes. Its bark is a known aphrodisiac, and sometimes decoctions are added to the psychedelic drink Ayahuasca.

The yellowish fiber contained in the seeds of the tree was historically used as a filling for a sundry of items, including mattresses and life jackets. Its use in this way declined after synthetic alternatives became more popular. Currently, its timber is mostly used to make boxes, crates, canoes, utensils, and furniture. The seed itself also yields an oil that is used in soap and fertilizer. The tree’s fragrant night-blooming flowers are an important source of nectar and pollen for honeybees and bats. This multipurpose tree provides for both people and wildlife of Equatorial Guinea.

Climate Change/Conservation Status

Equatoguinean forests cover much of the country. The trees not only contribute to the economy, but are so vast that they can also contribute to mitigating the effects of climate change. Forest management is key when it comes to conserving biodiversity in the country, and in 2019, Equatorial Guinea reaffirmed its commitment to reduce carbon emissions and deforestation. Funding has been allocated for this mission. In 2020, the country issued a presidential decree to ban logging of certain trees, because of ecosystem endangerment.

Although it is a highly protected tree in Equatorial Guinea, according to the IUCN, harvesting of ceiba in general is considered unsustainable and it is a vulnerable species in the Dominican Republic. It is necessary to monitor trends relating to the tree’s use as timber, in all countries. It is particularly difficult to measure and monitor large trees like the ceiba tree because of their height, but efficiency in this realm is vital to understanding the effects of both harvesting and climate change.

Alternate Names
Cotton tree
Java cotton
Java Kapok
Kapok

Sources
Climate Links, 2018. Climate Risk Profile: West Africa. U.S. Agency for International Development [ebook]

Embassy of Equatorial Guinea, Washington, D.C. This statement can be found on the World Sensorium original website.

Lewis, M.A., 2007. An Introduction to the Literature of Equatorial Guinea. University of Missouri Press Columbia and London. [ebook]

Lumosi, C., 2014. Equatorial Guinea Case: Current vulnerability in the Monte Alén–Monts de Cristal landscape. weADAPT. [website]

Nematchoua, M., Orosa, J., & Reiter, S., 2019. Climate change: Variabilities, vulnerabilities and adaptation analysis – A case of seven cities located in seven countries of Central Africa. Urban Climate, [website] 29, p.100486. DOI: 10.1016/j.uclim.2019.100486

Ngoua-Meye-Misso, R., et al., 2019. Medicinal plants used in management of cancer and other related diseases in Woleu-Ntem province, Gabon. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, [website] 29.

McSweeney, C., New, M., & Lizcano, G., 2019. UNDP Climate Change Country Profiles: Equatorial New Guinea. United Nations Development Programme. [ebook] pp.1-3.

What-When-How, n.d. Equatorial Guinea (Global Warming). The Crankshaft Publishing. [website]

← El Salvador

↑

Eritrea →

Curaçao

30 June 2021

Angel Diaz

No comments

Curaçao

Divi-Divi

Caesalpinia coriaria (formerly Libidibia coriaria)

General Description / Cultural Significance

Curaçao is an island country of the lesser Antilles in the southern Caribbean. Its semi-arid climate supports a different tropical vegetation than found on most Caribbean islands. This includes the characteristic windswept divi-divi, or Caesalpinia coriaria, a slow-growing evergreen shrub that can grow up to 30 feet tall and spreads a wide-reaching canopy. Almost all divi-divis, the country’s national tree, naturally lean to the west, creating a permanent living monument to the constant trade winds.

The small yellow flowers produce a lovely fragrance, and their nectar is a favorite of honeybees. Tannins from divi-divi pods have been used in leather production for centuries, and the pods produce a black or blue dye used to color natural fabrics. The dark brown hard wood produces a red dye. Medically, the people in Curaçao use the plant to fight staph infections, and in recent years it was scientifically confirmed to possess antibacterial activities.

Climate Change/Conservation Status

There are terrestrial and marine impacts from climate change in the Caribbean regions, and extreme vulnerability is predicted for the small island of Curaçao. The average temperatures in the Antilles have risen steeply over the last four decades. In that same time, the surrounding coral reefs have rapidly degraded by 50%. NOAA Coral Reef Watch has developed Heat Stress Gauges to monitor coral bleaching events.

The island’s meteorological department says they have progressively had more hot days and fewer cold nights. Curaçao has been hit hard by more frequent and violent tropical hurricanes and their marine and terrestrial ecosystems are vulnerable to higher ocean temperatures and acidification. Mangroves and sea grass beds are under threat from increasing salinity levels.

As of 2019, assessments by the IUCN indicated the divi-divi tree was not considered threatened. However, its habitat is moist lowlands so in the future it could be vulnerable to saltwater infiltration.

Alternate Names
Guaracabuya
Guatapana
Nacascol
Watapana tree

Sources
Debrot, A. O., & Bugter, R., 2010. Climate change effects on the biodiversity of the BES islands. Alterra Wageningen UR. ISSN: 1556-7197

DNCA, 2016. Climate change impacts within the Dutch Caribbean. Dutch Caribbean Nature Alliance. [website]

Jansen, P.C.M., 2015. Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.). Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. [website]

Robinson, S., 2018. Climate change adaptation in small island developing states: Insights and lessons from a meta-paradigmatic study. Environmental Science & Policy, 85, pp.172-181. DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2018.03.030

Sookram, S., 2011. An Assessment of the Economic Impact of Climate Change on the Tourism Sector in Curaçao. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. [website]

← Cuba

↑

Cyprus →